Iron metabolism, connective tissue, energy production, pigmentation and nervous system.
Switzerland age 18–65: 1.3 mg/day women, 1.6 mg/day men.
Liver, shellfish, cashews, seeds, cocoa, legumes and whole grains.
Anaemia, low white blood cells, bone problems, loss of pigmentation and neurological symptoms.
A common preventable cause is long-term high-dose zinc.
Pallor or pigment changes are possible but nonspecific.
Bariatric surgery, malabsorption and high zinc intake.
Full blood count, copper/ceruloplasmin and zinc in clinical context.
Treat only targeted, proven deficiency and correct the cause.
Excess copper can cause gastrointestinal, liver and neurological injury; Wilson disease is a special case.