Vitamin A

Vision, skin and mucosa, immune function and gene regulation.

Swiss reference value

Switzerland age 18–65: 650 µg RE/day women, 750 µg RE/day men.

Good food sources

Retinol: liver, eggs and dairy. Provitamin A: carrots, sweet potato, pumpkin, spinach and kale.

When intake or status is low

Night blindness, dry eyes progressing to xerophthalmia and greater infection susceptibility; rare with a balanced diet in Switzerland.

Long-term health connections

Severe deficiency can permanently damage vision. Fat malabsorption increases risk.

Skin, hair and nails

Dry skin is nonspecific; night blindness and marked eye changes require medical assessment.

Who is more at risk

Fat malabsorption, very limited diets and liver/biliary disease.

How to assess it

Diet, symptoms and, when suspected, laboratory and clinical eye assessment.

Supplements: when to consider

Food first. Avoid high-dose retinol especially in pregnancy unless medically prescribed.

Too much and safety

Chronic excess preformed vitamin A can harm liver, bone and pregnancy; food beta-carotene is different.

International reference systems